It is both a physical and mental act. Its purpose is both to express and impress. It is both a process and product.

We may distinguish differences between writing and speaking and find the characteristics of writing.

(1) Writing is more ‘attended to’ than speech. We are more conscious of what we are doing.

(2) Writing has text-types of its own. The way what we have to say in telephone or face-to-face conversations is different from the arrangement of material in letters or e-mail messages.

(3) Writing can make use of visual devices in a way which speech cannot.

(4) The different ‘dialects’ are mutually unintelligible in spoken form but share a common written form.

(5) The spelling-systems of almost all languages that use alphabetic writing-systems are based to some extent on how the word is spoken, but only partly so.

(6) The better we get at writing the easier it is to please others, but the harder to please ourselves.

(7) There have been more varieties of acceptable spoken than written English used internationally. Written English has so far been more uniform, except for relatively minor issues such as the differences between British and American spelling.

(1) Writing allows us to transcend item (when we leave a not for someone to pick up later) or space (when we send a letter through the post);

(2) To solve the problem of volume, of having to store more than the human brain can remember;

(3) To filter and shape our experience.

(1) Most of us benefit greatly from seeing the language written down. Ss often find it useful to write sentences using new language shortly after they have studies it (Reinforcement).

(2) The actual process of writing helps us to learn as we go along (Language development).

(3) Writing is appropriate for the learners who produce language in a slower way. It can also be a quiet reflective activity instead of the rush and bother of interpersonal face-to-face communication (Learning style).

(4) Writing is a basic language skill.

Handwriting is a personal issue. Nevertheless badly-formed letters may influence the reader against the writer, something which is undesirable whether the work is the product of some creative task or, more seriously, work that is going to be assessed in a test or exam. We should encourage students with problematic handwriting to improve it (Harmer, J. 2003: 255).

Ss should be encouraged to write:

A simple story, dialogues, playscripts, advertisements, or poems if we think these will motivate them. And others:

Writing greetings cards/letters

Making notes in a diary/journals

Writing a recipe down

Writing labels

Doing a spelling test

Writing a postcard/short mail/e-mail

Making notes for a friend/family…

Writing instructions for others/resumes

Taking a phone message

Writing a draft of speech

Grammar and vocabulary development for student writers

There are two major issues to consider. Teachers should focus in-class instruction on

(1) rules or structures that some or all of the students have demonstrated problems with;

(2) rules or structures that students will need mastery of in order to accomplish specific writing tasks in the course. 

Besides using common or persistent errors as a starting point for instruction, teachers may also wish to consider the types of lexical and syntactic choices that various types of writing tasks require or elicit.

The most important principles for integrating language instruction into a writing course are: 

(1) proportion (grammar/language development should not be out of balance with other writing class priorities) and

(2) relevance (grammar/language topics should not be overly broad or abstract but directly applicable to the writing tasks in the course and/or the writing problems demonstrated by the students).

In the teaching of writing we can focus on the product of that writing or on the writing process itself. When concentrating on the product we are only interested in the aim of a task and in the end product. Those who advocate a process approach to writing, however, pay attention to the various stages that any piece of writing goes through.

(1) Determining purpose in writing

(2) Deciding on the main ideas we want to write about.

-brainstorming, then highlighting important points;

-discussing ideas with colleagues;

-taking stock of what we have written at regular intervals

(3) Identifying readership.

     Fig.13-1: White and Arndt’s process writing model (Harmer, 2003:258)

In a genre approach to writing students study texts in the genre they are going to be writing before they embark on their own writing. If we want them to write newspaper articles we have them study real examples to discover facts about construction and specific language use which is common in that genre. 

Creative writing suggests imaginative tasks such as writing poetry, stories, and plays. Creative writing is a journey of self-discovery, and self-discovery promotes effective learning.  

Group writing allowed the lecturer to give more detailed and constructive feedback since she was dealing with a small number of groups rather than many individual students.  Cooperative writing works well with both process and genre-based approaches. 

(1) Understand your students’ reasons for writing;

(2) Provide many opportunities for students to write;

(3) Make feedback helpful and meaningful;

(4)Clarify for yourself, and for your students, how their writing will be evaluated.

(1) Motivator: creating the right conditions for the generation of ideas, persuading them of the usefulness of the activity, and encouraging them to make as much effort as possible for maximum benefit.

(2) Resource provider: to supply information and language where necessary, offering advice and suggestions in a constructive and tactful way.

(3) Feedback provider: respond positively and encouragingly to the content of what the students have written.

It is important in all writing courses for teachers to think carefully about how students will receive feedback on their text. Response is a critically important tool that focuses on the need of individual student writers and their texts. The following principles helpful as guidelines:

(1) “Response” is not synonymous with “grading”. The purpose is primarily to help student writers’ long-term development.

(2) The teacher should not be the only respondent.

(3) The teacher should respond selectively, identifying several major feedback points that will most help the student writer at that point in time.

(4) Teachers should be careful to avoid (or define) grammatical or rhetorical jargon.

(5) Teachers should think carefully about ways to prepare students for such response (peer response and teacher-student conferences) opportunities and structure them clearly. 

(1) Avoiding the ‘over-correction’ problem, (punctuation, or spelling, or grammar etc).è Encourage Ss to take risks to use new vocabulary and structures in their writing.

(2) To use to agree on a list of written symbols.

(3)Talk to Ss about their mistakes. Ensure that Ss understand the problem. 

Brookes, A & Grundy, P. Beginning to write (英语写作教学）[M]. 人教社，外研社，剑桥大学出版社，1998

Burns, A. & J. C. Richards. The Cambridge guide to pedagogy and practice in second language teaching [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

Campbell, C. Teaching second language writing: interacting with text (讲授第二语言写作：与文本互动) [M]. 外研社 & 圣智学习出版公司, 2004

Harmer, J. The practice of English language teaching (3rd ed.) [M]. Pearson Education & World Affairs Press, 2003: 255-286.

Hyland, K. 写作教学与研究[M]. 北京：外研社, 2005.

Nunan, D. Practical English language teaching [M]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2013: 87-107.

顾永琦等. 英语教学中的学习策略培训：阅读与写作[M].外研社，2011.

1. Should teachers focus on grammar rules and vocabulary in writing class instruction?

2. Why should we ask Ss to write various types of texts?

3. How will Ss receive feedback on their text?

4. What are the difficulties in utilizing process approach to writing?